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BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA (BPH)By Chipo James Mainda.Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) refers to the condition of th...
12/05/2026

BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA (BPH)

By Chipo James Mainda.

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) refers to the condition of the male reproductive system in which there's abnormal non cancerous enlargement of the prostate gland characterized by compelling desire to pass urine immediately, straining to pass urine and feeling of incomplete urinary bladder emptying.

The prostate gland is a male reproductive organ located below the urinary bladder and encloses part of the urethra called prostatic urethra. Its functions include;
1. Secretion of prostatic fluid which contains zinc which has potent bactericidal properties.This is the reason why men do not usually suffer from urinary tract infections.
2. Prostatic fluid alkalinizes semen in the acidic environment of the va**na.
3. Increases s***m motility and fertility.
4. It helps maintain urine continence.

The actual cause for BPH is idiopathic however, imbalance between androgen and oestrogen play an important role in benign prostatic hyperplasia.This condition is normally part of the natural aging process that is why it can not be prevented but rather it can be treated.

Individuals who're sexually active with multiple sexual partners are also predisposed to have benign prostatic hyperplasia because of the overworking prostate gland to produce prostatic fluid.This may lead to abnormal enlargement of the prostate gland which will then block the urethra resulting in urine retention.The growth can either be cancerous or non cancerous.

Some of the characteristic features of BPH include, Intermittency, Urgency and Hesitancy. A cystoscopy and Prostatic Specific Antigen (PSA) Test may help to come up with the actual diagnosis of benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia needs to be treated only if symptoms are severe enough to bother the patient and affect his quality of life. Medications may include use of Alpha & Beta Blockers. If medication doesn't work then surgery may be indicated. Trans Urethral Resection Prostatectomy (TURP) is the "Gold standard of surgical treatment for benign prostatic hyperplasia."

For more join our daily online lessons on whatsapp 0977353901.

11/05/2026

Mention one topic you love in paediatrics

What do you call this reaction?
11/05/2026

What do you call this reaction?

Identify the bone
10/05/2026

Identify the bone

10/05/2026

Nipesa apa panga sense: pa class or pa ward?

This looks like a synovial joint connecting the femur, tibia, and patella (knee joint).....
09/05/2026

This looks like a synovial joint connecting the femur, tibia, and patella (knee joint).....

DIALYSISBy Chipo James MaindaDialysis is a treatment for people whose kidneys are failing. When you have kidney failure,...
09/05/2026

DIALYSIS

By Chipo James Mainda

Dialysis is a treatment for people whose kidneys are failing. When you have kidney failure, your kidneys don’t filter blood the way they should. As a result, wastes and toxins build up in your bloodstream.

Dialysis does the work of your kidneys, removing waste products and excess fluid from the blood. People who have kidney failure, or end-stage renal disease (ESRD), may need dialysis. Injuries and conditions like high blood pressure, diabetes and lupus can damage kidneys, leading to kidney disease.

Some people develop kidney problems for no known reason. Kidney failure can be a long-term condition, or it can come on suddenly (acute) after a severe illness or injury. This type of kidney failure may go away as you recover.

There are five stages of kidney disease. Stage 5 kidney disease, it is the end-stage renal disease (ESRD) or kidney failure. At this point, kidneys are carrying out around 10% to 15% of their normal function. You may need dialysis or a kidney transplant to stay alive. Some people undergo dialysis while waiting for a transplant.

Your kidneys are part of your urinary system. These two bean-shaped organs sit below your ribcage on each side of your spine. They clean toxins from your blood, returning filtered, nutrient-rich blood to the bloodstream. The waste and extra water make urine, which moves from the kidneys into the bladder. Your kidneys also help regulate your blood pressure.

There are two ways to get dialysis:
* Hemodialysis
* Peritoneal dialysis

✓ Hemodialysis

With hemodialysis, a machine removes blood from your body, filters it through a dialyzer (artificial kidney) and returns the cleaned blood to your body. This 3- to 5-hour process may take place in a hospital or a dialysis center three times a week.

Some people experience low blood pressure during or immediately after hemodialysis. You may feel nauseous, dizzy or faint. Other side effects of hemodialysis include:
* Chest pain or back pain
* Headaches
Itchy skin
* Muscle cramps
* Restless legs syndrome

Before you start hemodialysis, you’ll undergo a minor surgical procedure to make it easier to access the bloodstream. You may have:
* Arteriovenous fistula (AV fistula): A surgeon connects an artery and vein in your arm.
* Arteriovenous graft (AV graft): If the artery and vein are too short to connect, your surgeon will use a graft (soft, hollow tube) to connect the artery and vein.

AV fistulas and grafts enlarge the connected artery and vein, which makes dialysis access easier. They also help blood flow in and out of your body faster. If dialysis needs to happen quickly, your provider may place a catheter (thin tube) into a vein in your neck, chest or leg for temporary access.

✓ Peritoneal dialysis

With peritoneal dialysis, tiny blood vessels inside the abdominal lining (peritoneum) filter blood through the aid of a dialysis solution. This solution is a type of cleansing liquid that contains water, salt and other additives.

There are two ways to do this treatment:
* Automated peritoneal dialysis uses a machine called a cycler.
* Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) takes place manually

For more join our daily online lessons on WhatsApp 0977353901.

The thyroid gland
08/05/2026

The thyroid gland

PHYSIOLOGY OF SWALLOWINGBy Chipo James MaindaSwallowing, also called Deglutition, is the act of passing food from the mo...
08/05/2026

PHYSIOLOGY OF SWALLOWING

By Chipo James Mainda

Swallowing, also called Deglutition, is the act of passing food from the mouth, by way of the pharynx (or throat) and esophagus, to the stomach. Three stages are involved in swallowing food.
* Buccal phase
* Pharyngeal phase
* Esophageal phase

✓ Buccal Phase

The first phase begins in the mouth. There, food is mixed with saliva for lubrication and placed on the back of the tongue. The mouth closes, and the soft portion of the roof of the mouth (soft palate) rises so that the passageway between the nasal and oral cavities is closed off.

The tongue rolls backward, propelling food into the oral pharynx, a chamber behind the mouth that functions to transport food and air.

✓ Pharyngeal phase

Once food enters the pharynx, the second stage of swallowing begins, the pharyngeal phase. Respiration is temporarily inhibited as the larynx, or voice box, rises to close the glottis (the opening to the air passage).

Pressure within the mouth and pharynx pushes food toward the esophagus. At the beginning of the esophagus there is a muscular constrictor, "the upper esophageal sphincter", which relaxes and opens when food approaches.

Food passes from the pharynx into the esophagus; the upper esophageal sphincter then immediately closes, preventing flow of food back into the mouth.

✓ Esophageal phase

Once food is in the esophagus, the final phase of swallowing "esophageal phase" begins. The larynx lowers, the glottis opens, and breathing resumes.

From the time food leaves the mouth until it passes the upper sphincter, only about one second of time elapses, during which all these body mechanisms spontaneously occur. After passing the upper sphincter, movements in the esophagus carry food to the stomach.

Rhythmic muscular contractions (peristaltic waves) and pressure within the esophagus push the food downward. Folds in the esophageal wall stretch out as materials pass by them and again contract once they have passed.

At the lower end of the esophagus, the lower esophageal sphincter relaxes and food enters the stomach; the sphincter then closes again to prevent reflux of gastric juices and food materials.

For more join our daily online lessons on Whatsapp 0977353901.

Your diagnosis?
07/05/2026

Your diagnosis?

NEONATAL JAUNDICEBy Chipo James Mainda.Jaundice comes from a French word 'jaunice' which means yellowness. Hence, neonat...
07/05/2026

NEONATAL JAUNDICE

By Chipo James Mainda.

Jaundice comes from a French word 'jaunice' which means yellowness. Hence, neonatal jaundice is the yellowish discoloration of the skin, sclera and mucous membrane in a newborn baby due to an increase in the serum bilirubin level in the bloodstream which is a component of bile.

So since bilirubin is the main culprit of yellowness, it is super important to know where it comes from. As the red blood cells (RBCs) are near of their normal life span which is about 120 days, they are eaten up by macrophages where the spleen plays the large part.

In the spleen, old red blood cells will be brokendown into Globin and Haem. The Globin will further be brokendown into amino acids which will then be stored in the body to help in the process of production of proteins.

The Haem on the other hand will also be brokendown to form iron and biliverdin. Iron will be stored in the body to help in the production of new Red blood cells (RBCs). Biliverdin will then be converted to Unconjugated Bilirubin (UCB) by the help of Biliverdin Reductase Enzyme.

Unconjugated Bilirubin (UCB) is a form of bilirubin that is lipid soluble, meaning it is not water soluble and hence can not be excreted out of the body.

In response, Albumins normally found in blood will transport UCB to the liver where it will be taken up by liver cells (hepatocytes) and eventually be conjugated or transformed from unconjugated bilirubin (UCB) to conjugated bilirubin (CB) by the help of the enzyme called Uridine Glucuronyl Transferase (UGT).

Conjugated bilirubin (CB) is water soluble, meaning it can be easily excreted. Conjugated bilirubin (CB) will move from the liver via the hepatic duct into the gallbladder to be stored and form bile.

Now after having a fat meal or like in neonates after lactation, the gallbladder secrets the bile which has conjugated bilirubin in it. Therefore, it moves via the common bile duct into the duodenum where again it will be converted to Urobilinogen (UBG) by the help of microbes (normal floras) normally present in the intestine.

From there, Urobilinogen will undergo further transudation and turns into Urobilin which will either be excreted in stools as stecobilinogen or be absorbed back again into the bloodstream and 90% goes to the liver and 10% to the kidneys to be excreted in urine as Urobilinogen.

Now any alterations in this normal bilirubin metabolism will result in abnormal accumulation of bilirubin in the bloodstream leading to yellowish discoloration of the skin and sclera called jaundice.

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