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RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME (RDS)By Chipo James MaindaRespiratory distress syndrome previously called hyaline membrane...
10/07/2026

RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME (RDS)

By Chipo James Mainda

Respiratory distress syndrome previously called hyaline membrane disease is a syndrome in premature infants caused by developmental insufficiency of lung surfactant production and structural immaturity in the lungs. It can cause affected babies to need extra oxygen to help them breathing.

Respiratory distress syndrome, is a common breathing or respiratory condition that affects newborn's lungs/alveoli, basically caused by pulmonary surfactant deficiency in the lungs of the neonate, most commonly in those born at less than 37 weeks of gestation, characterized by grunting sounds with breathing, chest retractions, dyspnea and cyanosis.

Pulmonary surfactant is a mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins secreted by type II pneumocytes. Before birth, the fetal lungs/alveoli are filled with fluid since it doesn't breath inside the uterus. At birth, lung surfactant diminishes the surface tension of water film that lines the alveoli to collapse and the work required to inflate them.

Lung surfactant begins to be made in the fetus about 24-28 weeks of pregnancy and by about 35 weeks gestation, most babies have developed adequate amount of surfactant. It is released into the lungs to help open and inflate the alveoli during respiration with a low amount of force.
Respiratory distress syndrome results from deficiency in pulmonary surfactant activity due to lung immaturity.

If for example birth occurs before 35 weeks of gestation, the premature infant may not be able to cope for long time as a result of immature lungs. At first, the infant may breath with minimal difficulties, initially but as the surfactant present progressively reduces, the respiration become laboured because the alveoli can not be opened and inflated adequately.

With surfactant deficiency, a greater pressure/force is needed to open the alveoli, and without adequate airway pressure, the lungs become diffusely atelectatic, triggering inflammation and pulmonary edema.
This will cause impairment in gaseous exchange resulting in low levels of oxygen in blood and accumulation of carbon dioxide resulting in blood acid level and severe hypoxia. Increased acidosis in turn leads to capillary damage and necrosis surrounding the alveoli, which again suppresses the production of surfactant with increasing atelectasis.

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Ichakupompa
09/07/2026

Ichakupompa

PHYSIOLOGY OF SEEINGBy Chipo James MaindaVision is the special sense of sight that is based on the transduction of light...
08/07/2026

PHYSIOLOGY OF SEEING

By Chipo James Mainda

Vision is the special sense of sight that is based on the transduction of light stimuli received through the eyes. The eyes are located within either orbit in the skull. The bony orbits surround the eyeballs, protecting them and anchoring the soft tissues of the eye.

Physiological events of vision consists of following;
* Refraction of light entering the eye
* Focusing of image on the retina by accommodation of lens
* Convergence of image
* Photo-chemical activity in retina and conversion into neural impulse
* Processing in brain and perception

During the first event, light wave travels parallel to each other but they bend when passes from one medium to another. This phenomenon is called refraction.
Before light reach the retina, it passes through the clear cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitrous humor, so refraction takes place in every medium before it falls on retina.
In normal eye, light wave is focused on the retina.

Accommodation of lens to focus image:
Accommodation is a reflex process to bring light rays from object into perfect focus on retina by adjusting the lens. For accommodation to view closer object, ciliary muscle contract and lens become thick which causes focus on closer object. Similarly, when distant object is viewed, ciliary muscles relaxes, so the tension of ligament become greater which pull lens and lens become thinner, due to which image forms on retina.

Convergence of image: Human eye have binocular vision, it means although we have two eye, we perceive single image. In binocular vision, two eye ball turns slightly inward to focus a close object so that both image falls on corresponding points on retina at the same time. This phenomenon is called convergence.

Photochemical activity in rods: Each eye contains 125 million rods and 7 million cone cells.
There are three different types of cone cells and each cone cell contains different photo-pigment and are sensitive to red, green and blue. The perception of color depends upon which cone are stimulated.

Processing of image in brain and perception: All visual information originates in retina due to stimulation of rods and cones which are then conveyed to the brain. Photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells and ganglion cells transmit impulses directly from the retina to the brain to perceived the image.

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UTERINE RUPTUREBy Chipo James MaindaEach year, millions of women successfully give birth to healthy babies. But not all ...
07/07/2026

UTERINE RUPTURE

By Chipo James Mainda

Each year, millions of women successfully give birth to healthy babies. But not all women have smooth deliveries. Several complications can occur during childbirth, some of which pose risks to the mother and the baby.

Uterine rupture is a rare, but serious childbirth complication that can occur during vaginal birth. It causes a mother’s uterus to tear so her baby slips into her abdomen/peritoneal cavity. This can cause severe bleeding in the mother and can suffocate the baby.

It almost always occurs in women with uterine scars from previous cesarean deliveries or other uterine surgeries. A woman’s risk of uterine rupture increases with every cesarean section.

This is why doctors may recommend that women who’ve had a cesarean delivery avoid vaginal delivery in later pregnancies. Vaginal birth after a previous cesarean delivery is possible, but the woman in labor will be considered higher risk and be closely monitored.

During labor, pressure builds as the baby moves through the mother’s birth canal. This pressure can cause the mother’s uterus to tear. Often, it tears along the site of a previous cesarean delivery scar. When a uterine rupture occurs, the uterus’s contents, including the baby, may spill into the mother’s abdomen.

A uterine rupture can be a life-threatening complication of childbirth for both the mother and the baby.

In the mother, uterine ruptures can cause major blood loss, or hemorrhage. However, fatal bleeding due to uterine rupture is rare when it occurs in a hospital.

Uterine ruptures are usually a much greater health concern for the baby. Once doctors diagnose a uterine rupture, they must act quickly to pull the baby from the mother. If the baby isn’t delivered within 10 to 40 minutes, it will die from a lack of oxygen.

If a uterine rupture causes major blood loss, surgeons may need to remove a woman’s uterus called hysterectomy to control her bleeding. After this procedure, a woman can no longer become pregnant. Women with excessive blood loss receive blood transfusions.

Also, surgery is usually required to pull the baby from the mother’s body. Doctors will improve the baby’s chances of survival by administering critical care, such as oxygen.

The only way to prevent uterine rupture is to have a cesarean delivery. It can’t be fully prevented during vaginal birth.

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TENESMUSBy Chipo James MaindaTenesmus is the frequent and urgent feeling that you need to pass stool, even if your bowel...
06/07/2026

TENESMUS

By Chipo James Mainda

Tenesmus is the frequent and urgent feeling that you need to pass stool, even if your bowels are already empty. It may involve straining and discomfort during bowel movements, only to produce a small amount of stool.
Even if you’ve just emptied your bowels, it feels like you didn’t get everything out. Your body continues to urge you to go with symptoms such as pressure, pain, cramping and involuntary straining.
Severe inflammation that irritates the nerves involved in defecation is often the cause. Your nerves overreact, telling your muscles that you constantly have to go.

You can have tenesmus related to p**ping or p*eing. Re**al tenesmus is the persistent feeling that you need to p**p, even when you can’t p**p anymore. Vesical tenesmus is the persistent feeling that you need to p*e, even when you can’t p*e anymore. These are separate conditions with different causes. In this article we will focus more on re**al tenesmus.

Tenesmus is a symptom of an underlying condition. It shouldn’t be your normal everyday experience. If you have certain chronic gastrointestinal diseases, tenesmus can be more common, but it may be treatable. If tenesmus is new to you, it may be a sign of a new, acute condition that needs to be diagnosed.

Tenesmus may be a symptom of a number of conditions involving the gastrointestinal tract. Potential causes for tenesmus may include:
* Crohn’s disease
* Ulcerative colitis
* Constipation
* Proctitis, which is usually caused by an infection or inflammatory bowel disease
* Irritable bowel syndrome
* Re**al prolapse
* Sexually transmitted infection (STI) of the re**um
* Viral, bacterial, or parasitic infections of the colon
* Anore**al motility disorders
* Certain types of abdominal surgery
* Re**al abscesses
* Colore**al cancer

Symptoms of tenesmus include:
* Frequently feeling like you need to pass stool
* Urgency to evacuate your bowels
* Straining and discomfort during bowel movements
* Passing only a small amount of stool
* Feeling as if you can’t completely empty your bowels

If you have tenesmus, you’ll often feel the need to empty your bowels, even if there’s little to no stool to pass. Bowel movements may involve significant cramping and discomfort. You may often find yourself straining to pass small amounts of f***l matter.

Once the doctor have a better understanding of what’s causing your symptoms, he/she may treat your tenesmus in a few different ways.

05/07/2026

Are you overwhelmed by your busy schedule and need help with your Lesson Plans? Look no further! We've got you covered.

What is your diagnosis?
05/07/2026

What is your diagnosis?

REFLEX ACTIONBy Chipo James MaindaWhen you touch a hot object or when a pin pricks your finger, what is your immediate r...
04/07/2026

REFLEX ACTION

By Chipo James Mainda

When you touch a hot object or when a pin pricks your finger, what is your immediate reaction? Of course, you remove your hand away from the source of pain, either the hot object or the pin. In situations like these, your reactions are always immediate, involuntary and sudden.

They happen without much of a thinking process. In scientific terms, this action is called the reflex action. Here the spinal cord has a major role to play. The reflex arc shows the pathway through which the reflex action occurs.

Reflex action is a sudden and involuntary response to stimuli. It helps organisms to quickly adapt to an adverse circumstance that could have the potential to cause bodily harm or even death. Pulling our hands away immediately after touching a hot or cold object is a classic example of a reflex action.

The whole mechanism of reflex action occurs in such a fashion that there is no conscious control of the brain. Stimulation occurs through the peripheral nervous system and the response to this peripheral nerve stimulation is involuntary. In a reflex action, the spinal cord along with the brain stem is responsible for the reflex movements.

A few examples of reflex action are:
* When light acts as a stimulus, the pupil of the eye changes in size.
* Sudden jerky withdrawal of hand or leg when pricked by a pin.
* Coughing or sneezing, because of irritants in the nasal passages.
* Knees jerk in response to a blow or someone stamping the leg.
* The sudden removal of the hand from a sharp object.
* Sudden blinking when an insect comes very near to the eyes.

There are some stimuli that require an automatic, instantaneous response without the need of conscious thought. The whole process of reflex action involves some important components.

They are receptor organs, sensory neurons, nerve center and associated neurons in the spinal cord, motor neurons and effector neurons.

The sensory neurons pick up signals from the sensory organ and send them through other neurons which are interconnected. It is then received by the relay neuron which is present in the spinal cord.

Immediately, the spinal cord sends back signals to the muscle through the motor neuron. The muscles attached to the sense organ move the organ away from danger. In reflex actions, the signals do not travel up to the brain.

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We declare endless favor upon you! 👉Endless joy!👉Endless victories!👉Endless doors!👉Endless finances!👉Endless success!👉En...
03/07/2026

We declare endless favor upon you!
👉Endless joy!
👉Endless victories!
👉Endless doors!
👉Endless finances!
👉Endless success!
👉Endless power!

Electron Microscope image of Naegleria fowleri, the brain-eating amoeba.
02/07/2026

Electron Microscope image of Naegleria fowleri, the brain-eating amoeba.

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